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Myers' PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 8
Learning
Learning
*Learning
* relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
Association
* We learn by association
* Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence
* Aristotle 2000 years ago
* John Locke and David Hume 200 years ago
* Associative Learning
* learning that two events occur together
* two stimuli
* a response and its consequences
Association
* Learning to associate two events
Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
* We learn to associate two stimuli
Operant Conditioning
* We learn to associate a response and its consequence
Classical Conditioning
* Ivan Pavlov
* 1849-1936
* Russian physician/ neurophysiologist
* Nobel Prize in 1904
* studied digestive secretions
Pavlov's Classic Experiment
Classical Conditioning
* Pavlov's device for recording salivation
Classical Conditioning
* Classical Conditioning
* organism comes to associate two stimuli
* a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus
Behaviorism
* John B. Watson
* viewed psychology as objective science
* generally agreed-upon consensus today
* recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes
* not universally accepted by all schools of thought today
Classical Conditioning
* Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
* stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response
* Unconditioned Response (UCR)
* unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus
* salivation when food is in the mouth
Classical Conditioning
* Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
* originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
* Conditioned Response (CR)
* learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus
Classical Conditioning
* Acquisition
* the initial stage in classical conditioning
* the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response
* in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
* Extinction
* diminishing of a CR
* in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS
* in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced
Classical Conditioning
* Spontaneous Recovery
* reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR
* Generalization
* tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses
Classical Conditioning
* Discrimination
* in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS
Generalization
Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients
Operant Conditioning
* Operant Conditioning
* type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment
* Law of Effect
* Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Operant Conditioning
* Operant Behavior
* operates (acts) on environment
* produces consequences
* Respondent Behavior
* occurs as an automatic response to stimulus
* behavior learned through classical conditioning
Operant Conditioning
* B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
* elaborated Thorndike's Law of Effect
* developed behavioral technology
Operant Chamber
* Skinner Box
* chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer
* contains devices to record responses
Operant Conditioning
* Reinforcer
* any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
* Shaping
* operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal
Operant Conditioning
Principles of Reinforcement
* Primary Reinforcer
* innately reinforcing stimulus
* i.e., satisfies a biological need
* Conditioned Reinforcer
* stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer
* secondary reinforcer
Schedules of Reinforcement
* Continuous Reinforcement
* reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs
* Partial (Intermitent) Reinforcement
* reinforcing a response only part of the time
* results in slower acquisition
* greater resistance to extinction
Schedules of Reinforcement
* Fixed Ratio (FR)
* reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
* faster you respond the more rewards you get
* different ratios
* very high rate of responding
* like piecework pay
Schedules of Reinforcement
* Variable Ratio (VR)
* reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
* average ratios
* like gambling, fishing
* very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability
Schedules of Reinforcement
* Fixed Interval (FI)
* reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
* response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near
Schedules of Reinforcement
* Variable Interval (VI)
* reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
* produces slow steady responding
* like pop quiz
Schedules of Reinforcement
Punishment
* Punishment
* aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows
* powerful controller of unwanted behavior
Punishment
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
* Cognitive Map
* mental representation of the layout of one's environment
* Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
* Latent Learning
* learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Latent Learning
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
* Overjustification Effect
* the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do
* the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
* Intrinsic Motivation
* Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective
* Extrinsic Motivation
* Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments
Operant vs Classical Conditioning
Observational Learning
* Observational Learning
* learning by observing others
* Modeling
* process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
* Prosocial Behavior
* positive, constructive, helpful behavior
* opposite of antisocial behavior
Observational Learning
* Mirror Neurons
* frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
* may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
Myers' PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 8
Learning
Learning
*Learning
* relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
Association
* We learn by association
* Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence
* Aristotle 2000 years ago
* John Locke and David Hume 200 years ago
* Associative Learning
* learning that two events occur together
* two stimuli
* a response and its consequences
Association
* Learning to associate two events
Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
* We learn to associate two stimuli
Operant Conditioning
* We learn to associate a response and its consequence
Classical Conditioning
* Ivan Pavlov
* 1849-1936
* Russian physician/ neurophysiologist
* Nobel Prize in 1904
* studied digestive secretions
Pavlov's Classic Experiment
Classical Conditioning
* Pavlov's device for recording salivation
Classical Conditioning
* Classical Conditioning
* organism comes to associate two stimuli
* a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus
Behaviorism
* John B. Watson
* viewed psychology as objective science
* generally agreed-upon consensus today
* recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes
* not universally accepted by all schools of thought today
Classical Conditioning
* Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
* stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response
* Unconditioned Response (UCR)
* unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus
* salivation when food is in the mouth
Classical Conditioning
* Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
* originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
* Conditioned Response (CR)
* learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus
Classical Conditioning
* Acquisition
* the initial stage in classical conditioning
* the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response
* in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
* Extinction
* diminishing of a CR
* in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS
* in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced
Classical Conditioning
* Spontaneous Recovery
* reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR
* Generalization
* tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses
Classical Conditioning
* Discrimination
* in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS
Generalization
Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients
Operant Conditioning
* Operant Conditioning
* type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment
* Law of Effect
* Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Operant Conditioning
* Operant Behavior
* operates (acts) on environment
* produces consequences
* Respondent Behavior
* occurs as an automatic response to stimulus
* behavior learned through classical conditioning
Operant Conditioning
* B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
* elaborated Thorndike's Law of Effect
* developed behavioral technology
Operant Chamber
* Skinner Box
* chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer
* contains devices to record responses
Operant Conditioning
* Reinforcer
* any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
* Shaping
* operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal
Operant Conditioning
Principles of Reinforcement
* Primary Reinforcer
* innately reinforcing stimulus
* i.e., satisfies a biological need
* Conditioned Reinforcer
* stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer
* secondary reinforcer
Schedules of Reinforcement
* Continuous Reinforcement
* reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs
* Partial (Intermitent) Reinforcement
* reinforcing a response only part of the time
* results in slower acquisition
* greater resistance to extinction
Schedules of Reinforcement
* Fixed Ratio (FR)
* reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
* faster you respond the more rewards you get
* different ratios
* very high rate of responding
* like piecework pay
Schedules of Reinforcement
* Variable Ratio (VR)
* reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
* average ratios
* like gambling, fishing
* very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability
Schedules of Reinforcement
* Fixed Interval (FI)
* reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
* response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near
Schedules of Reinforcement
* Variable Interval (VI)
* reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
* produces slow steady responding
* like pop quiz
Schedules of Reinforcement
Punishment
* Punishment
* aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows
* powerful controller of unwanted behavior
Punishment
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
* Cognitive Map
* mental representation of the layout of one's environment
* Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
* Latent Learning
* learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Latent Learning
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
* Overjustification Effect
* the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do
* the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
* Intrinsic Motivation
* Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective
* Extrinsic Motivation
* Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments
Operant vs Classical Conditioning
Observational Learning
* Observational Learning
* learning by observing others
* Modeling
* process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
* Prosocial Behavior
* positive, constructive, helpful behavior
* opposite of antisocial behavior
Observational Learning
* Mirror Neurons
* frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
* may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
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