01-对心理科学的批判性思考.ppt
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Myers' PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 1
Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
The Need forPsychological Science
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize observations and imply testable hypotheses
The Need forPsychological Science
* Hindsight Bias
* we tend to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it
* the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon
* Overconfidence
* we tend to think we know more than we do
The Need forPsychological Science
* Critical Thinking
* thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
* examines assumptions
* discerns hidden values
* evaluates evidence
The Need forPsychological Science
* Theory
* an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
* Hypothesis
* a testable prediction
* often implied by a theory
The Need forPsychological Science
The Need forPsychological Science
* Operational Definition
* a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables
* Example-
* intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures
The Need forPsychological Science
* Replication
* repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other participants and circumstances
* usually with different participants in different situations
Description
Psychologists describe behavior using case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation
Description
Case Study
* Psychologists study one or more individuals in great depth in the hope of revealing things true of us all
Description
* Survey
* technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people
* usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people
* Random Sample
* a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Description
* False Consensus Effect
* tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
* Population
* all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
Description
Description
* If marbles of two colors are mixed well in the large jar, the fastest way to know their ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller one and count them
Description
* Naturalistic Observation
* observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Correlation
* Correlation Coefficient
* a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other
Correlation
* Scatterplot
* a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
* the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship
* the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
* little scatter indicates high correlation
* also called a scattergram or scatter diagram
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Scatterplot of Height and Temperament
Correlation
Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
Illusory Correlation
* Illusory Correlation
* the perception of a relationship where none exists
Two Random Sequences
* Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same:1 in 2,598,960.
Experimentation
* Experiment
* an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)
* by random assignment of participants the experiment controls other relevant factors
Experimentation
* Placebo
* an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent
* Double-blind Procedure
* both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
* commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Experimentation
* Experimental Condition
* the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
* Control Condition
* the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental treatment
* serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Experimentation
* Random Assignment
* assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance
* minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups
Experimentation
* Independent Variable
* the experimental factor that is manipulated
* the variable whose effect is being studied
* Dependent Variable
* the experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
* in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process
Experimentation
Research Strategies
* Design of the subliminal tapes experiment
Statistical Reasoning
Statistical Reasoning
Statistical Reasoning
* Mode
* the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
* Mean
* the arithmetic average of a distribution
* obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
* Median
* the middle score in a distribution
* half the scores are above it and half are below it
Statistical Reasoning
A Skewed Distribution
Statistical Reasoning
* Range
* the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
* Standard Deviation
* a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
* Statistical Significance
* a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Does behavior depend on ones culture?
* Culture--the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Does behavior vary with gender?
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Why do psychologists study animals?
Is it ethical to experiment on animals?
Is it ethical to experiment on people?
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Is psychology free of value judgments?
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Is psychology potentially dangerous?
Myers' PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 1
Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
The Need forPsychological Science
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize observations and imply testable hypotheses
The Need forPsychological Science
* Hindsight Bias
* we tend to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it
* the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon
* Overconfidence
* we tend to think we know more than we do
The Need forPsychological Science
* Critical Thinking
* thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
* examines assumptions
* discerns hidden values
* evaluates evidence
The Need forPsychological Science
* Theory
* an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
* Hypothesis
* a testable prediction
* often implied by a theory
The Need forPsychological Science
The Need forPsychological Science
* Operational Definition
* a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables
* Example-
* intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures
The Need forPsychological Science
* Replication
* repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other participants and circumstances
* usually with different participants in different situations
Description
Psychologists describe behavior using case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation
Description
Case Study
* Psychologists study one or more individuals in great depth in the hope of revealing things true of us all
Description
* Survey
* technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people
* usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people
* Random Sample
* a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Description
* False Consensus Effect
* tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
* Population
* all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
Description
Description
* If marbles of two colors are mixed well in the large jar, the fastest way to know their ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller one and count them
Description
* Naturalistic Observation
* observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Correlation
* Correlation Coefficient
* a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other
Correlation
* Scatterplot
* a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
* the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship
* the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
* little scatter indicates high correlation
* also called a scattergram or scatter diagram
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Scatterplot of Height and Temperament
Correlation
Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
Illusory Correlation
* Illusory Correlation
* the perception of a relationship where none exists
Two Random Sequences
* Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same:1 in 2,598,960.
Experimentation
* Experiment
* an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)
* by random assignment of participants the experiment controls other relevant factors
Experimentation
* Placebo
* an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent
* Double-blind Procedure
* both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
* commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Experimentation
* Experimental Condition
* the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
* Control Condition
* the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental treatment
* serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Experimentation
* Random Assignment
* assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance
* minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups
Experimentation
* Independent Variable
* the experimental factor that is manipulated
* the variable whose effect is being studied
* Dependent Variable
* the experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
* in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process
Experimentation
Research Strategies
* Design of the subliminal tapes experiment
Statistical Reasoning
Statistical Reasoning
Statistical Reasoning
* Mode
* the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
* Mean
* the arithmetic average of a distribution
* obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
* Median
* the middle score in a distribution
* half the scores are above it and half are below it
Statistical Reasoning
A Skewed Distribution
Statistical Reasoning
* Range
* the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
* Standard Deviation
* a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
* Statistical Significance
* a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Does behavior depend on ones culture?
* Culture--the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Does behavior vary with gender?
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Why do psychologists study animals?
Is it ethical to experiment on animals?
Is it ethical to experiment on people?
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Is psychology free of value judgments?
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Is psychology potentially dangerous?
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