Emergency and Intensive Care Management of a Comatose Patient with Intracranial Hypertension: Current Concepts
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《印第安小儿科》
Abstract:
Altered mental status is a common occurrence in children with acute critical illness. The causes of non-traumatic coma are diverse ranging from neurological to systemic causes. Early appropriate supportive care is essential to avoid preventable secondary insults and optimize the neurological outcome. Evaluation and stabilization of the patient’s airway, breathing and circulation (ABCs) must proceed simultaneously with assessments of the depth of coma and the presence of raised intracranial pressure (ICP). Any rapidly correctable cause of coma must be immediately corrected. Most patients with non-traumatic encephalopathies have raised ICP, although papilledema may be absent and the CT scan may be normal if ICP elevation occurs acutely. The most important early treatment for raised ICP is controlled intubation and ventilation followed by osmotherapy. Early control of seizures, including non-convulsive seizures is important. Urgent imaging is indicated in most cases particularly in the presence of afebrile coma, focal signs or papilledema. Following stabilization, isotonic fluids are administered, aiming for euvolemia and euglycaemia. Ventilation should aim for the lower end of eucapnia to avoid causing cerebral ischemia. Surgical options should be explored and, in refractory intracranial hypertension, barbiturates and mild hypothermia may have a role.
Key words: Coma, Cerebral perfusion pressure, Cerebral blood flow.
This article attempts to guide the pediatrician through a problem oriented, prioritized approach to a child presenting with coma in the Emergency Room and Intensive Care, stressing the importance of early stabilization of the vitals, including early controlled ventilation. The dangers of overzealous hyperventilation, early lumbar puncture as well as the basis for the current recommendations for fluid therapy in modern neuro-critical care are discussed. Many algorithms in standard western literature are based on continuous intracranial pressure (ICP) measurement, a monitoring modality that is not widely available in India. The following guidelines outline ten steps of empiric ICP management, an approach that may have limitations of significant over and under treatment with attendant complications. Guidelines for differentiating causes of coma are shown in Table I(1-9)
Important causes of coma in Indian children include bacterial, tuberculous and viral meningoencephalitis,
malaria; non-infectious causes including stroke, ingestions and Reye syndrome(2-8).
Management goals
The main goals of care include optimizing cerebral blood flow (CBF)/ cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) and minimizing factors that can aggravate neuronal injury or trigger intra-cranial pressure (ICP) elevation(9-12).
1. Assess the Airway, Breathing and Circulation (ABCs)
The airway should be stabilized and an assessment made for the need for intubation. Even if spontaneously breathing with normal gas exchange, many comatose children will benefit from intubation, especially if they have intracranial hypertension(9,11). Early intubation, ventilation and deep sedation are often overlooked as key interventions for ICP control(10).
A GCS below 8 has been the standard indication for intubation. Recent literature however states that intubation should be considered in patients with a GCS below 12(11). Other indications for intubation include deterioration in the level of conscious-ness, evidence of herniation and irregularities in respiration (Table II)(9-11).
The blood pressure should be kept at the higher range of normal (for age). This requires ensuring appropriate fluid and inotrope management(10,11).
2. Assess and Treat for Immediately Correctable Cause of Coma
Perform bedside capillary glucose test and correct if low, send samples to lab for routine hematological and biochemical testing.
3. Assessment of the Depth of Coma
The standard assessment tool is the Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) in older children and modified GCS in children <5 years old(1,2,13). The AVPU score A (Awake), V (Response to verbal commands), P (Response only to pain), U (unresponsive) is an alternate coma score(1).
4. Assessment and Treatment of Raised ICP
The focus of contempory ICP management has changed in recent years in two important aspects: firstly, increasing emphasis on CPP (cerebral perfusion pressure) management in addition to ICP control and secondly, the increasing recognition of the potential for overzealous hyperventilation to aggravate cerebral ischemia by reducing CBF(9-12).
CPP = Mean arterial pressure (MAP) – Intracranial pressure (ICP)
Cerebral ischemia may result when CPP is lowered, either from raised ICP or lowered MAP (hypotension). When the ICP is critically raised, herniation syndromes (uncal, central or medullary herniation) can occur, which, along with hypoxic-ischemic damage from reduced CPP, are the most important causes of death(10,11). Table III describes the signs of herniation(9,11).
Role of Mannitol
Mannitol is indicated acutely for patients in whom there is a strong clinical suspicion of raised ICP or imminent herniation(9-11). Mannitol has two distinct effects(9,10,15). The immediate effect is related to its rheologic properties (decreased blood viscosity) resulting in a transient increased CBF followed by a more sustained fall in CBF. The delayed osmotic effects occur after 15-30 minutes and last for 4-6 hours. Urinary fluid losses should be replaced with normal saline to avoid volume depletion(10).
Emerging Role of Hypertonic Saline (HTS) (16-21)
HTS acts like mannitol by establishing a constant osmolar gradient in order to draw fluid from the brain parenchyma but without the risks of dehydration and tubular damage as in the case of mannitol. In the hypotensive/hypoperfused patient, HTS may be the osmotherapy of choice for reducing ICP while maintaining MAP/CPP, although most literature is this context is in reference to adults(16,17).
However, beneficial effects of HTS with a low frequency of side-effects have been described in the setting of pediatric traumatic brain injury(18,19) and cerebral edema occurring during DKA treatment in children(20-21).
5. Anti-seizure Medications in Coma
Convulsions can cause massive increases in CBF , consequent increase in ICP, can lead to secondary brain damage and may precipitate or be precipitated by cerebral herniation(9-12). Apart from generalized tonic clonic seizures (GTCS), some comatose children may have non-convulsive seizures (NCS) manifesting with subtle signs such as eyelid twitching, eye deviation or nystagmus(11). A bedside EEG may be informative(22). If in doubt, empiric treatment of seizures may be justified and can result in improvement of consciousness(11).
6. Neuro-imaging
Urgent imaging is indicated in afebrile coma and the presence of focal signs or papilledema, as the diagnosis includes stroke, intra-cranial bleed, tumor or hydro-cephalus(11,22). However, any child who does not have a very obvious metabolic/ toxic cause for the coma generally requires to be imaged. A CT scan may provide information about the cause of altered mental status and the presence of intracranial hypertension(22), however a normal CT scan does not rule out raised ICP(11).
An MRI may be more specific for early changes of herpes simplex encephalitis (where CT may be normal), posterior fossa and white matter pathology(9,11) . A cranial ultrasound may miss subdural collections or even extensive infarcts and a CT or MRI is an essential investigation in a deeply comatose infant even when the anterior fontanelle is open(11).
7. Lumbar Puncture (LP) in a Comatose Child
The potential benefits of early LP include making an early diagnosis of CNS infection and identification of the pathogen and drug sensitivities(9,23). Contra-indications for LP include signs of cerebral herniation, low GCS, focal neurological signs, or cardiorespiratory compromise(9,11,23). In an unconscious child with potential raised ICP , the decision is controversial with some authors stating that the risk of herniation far outweighs the benefit of knowing the pathogen from an early LP(24).
8. Choice of Empiric Antimicrobials
If a CNS infection is suspected in a febrile child presenting in acute coma and seizures, empiric anti-microbial should include acyclovir in addition to a third generation cephalosporin until further confirmatory tests are available(11). The need for empiric anti-malarials should be carefully assessed(6,11).
9. Fluid Therapy
There is accumulating data that hypovolemia worsens outcome in children with meningitis(25-27), malaria(28) and severe head injury(18,19). Hypovolemia (fluid restriction, diuretics) can lower the CPP and lead to worse ICP due to auto-regulatory vasodilation(10) .What must be restricted are hypotonic fluids such as 1/5th normal saline in 5% dextrose (Isolyte P). The dextrose will be metabolized with a resultant hypotonic fluid that can exacerbate cerebral edema and ICP(10-12). Adult and pediatric literature stress the importance of avoiding both hyperglycemia as well as hypoglycemia since the former can also worsen neurological out-come(10,18,19,29) .
Enteral feeds should be started at the earliest(11,18) .
10. Management of persistent raised ICP in the ICU
If despite the above treatment, the patient continues to show evidence of raised ICP, further measures to tackle refractory raised ICP must be instituted. Specific surgically correctible lesions should be attended to.
While steroids should not be used for ICP related to infarcts, hemorrhage or trauma, the use of dexamethasone for vasogenic edema related to tumors, granulomas and abscesses can lead to dramatic reduction in lesion volume(10).
Head end elevation by 30o (provided patient not hypotensive)(30) and avoidance of neck kinking are important. Fever, agitation and seizures must be assiduously controlled as they can cause massive increases in CBF and CPP(9-12). If ventilated, the PaCO2 should be maintained in the low 30s in order to prevent cerebral ischemia(9-12,31). More extreme hypocapnia can be employed as a short- term temporizing measure for acute deterioration(10,11).
Barbiturate coma(9,18,19) and/or mild hypothermia(19,32) are used in some centers in order to reduce the cerebral metabolic rate for oxygen (CMRO2) and thus the cerebral blood flow, although most references pertain to adults(32). Hypotension during barbiturate use may require vasopressors to optimize the MAP/CPP(10,12) .
In ICP refractory to medical measures, surgical decompression has been shown to improve survival and functional out-come(33).
Acknowledgements
Some of the issues covered in the manuscript were discussed during the panel discussion on "Stabilization of a comatose child". This was a sub-specialty "Meet the expert" session of the Intensive chapter of IAP conducted during the 41st Pedicon held at Chennai on 10th Jan 2004 Moderators: Dr. Suchitra Ranjit, Dr Nirmal Choraria. Panelists: Krishan Chugh (Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, Delhi), N Janakiraman (Chicago, USA), Pravin Khilnani (Apollo Indraprastha, Delhi), Indumathy Santhanam (Institute of Child Health and Hospital for Children, Chennai), Sunit Singhi (Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandi-garh), Soonu Udani (PD Hinduja Hospital, Mumbai). The author also acknowledges with gratitude the expert comments and suggestions of Dr. Venkatakrishna Rajajee, Consultant in Neurocritical Care, Apollo Hospitals, Chennai.
References
1. Issacman DJ, Trainor JL, Rothrock SG. Central Nervous system. In: Gauche-Hill MG, Fuchs S, Yamamoto L, Editors. APLS: The Pediatric Emergency Medicine Course. 4th ed. Sudbury: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. 2004; p. 146-185.
2. Bansal A, Singhi SC, Singhi PD. Non-traumatic coma. Indian J Pediatr 2005; 72: 467-473.
3. Kabilan L, Rajendran R, Arunachalam N, Ramesh S, Srinivasan S, Samuel PP, et al. Japanese encephalitis in India: An overview. Indian J Pediatr 2004; 71: 609-615.
4. Rao BL, Basu A, Wairagkar NS, Gore MM, Arankalle VA, Thakare JP, et al. A large outbreak of acute encephalitis with high fatality rate in children in Andhra Pradesh, India, in 2003, associated with Chandipura virus. Lancet 2004; 364: 869-874.
5. Karande S, Gupta V, Kulkarni M. Prognostic clinical variables in childhood tuberculous meningitis: An experience from Mumbai, India. Neurology India 2005; 53: 191-196.
6. Garg RK, Karak B, Misra S. Neurological manifestations of malaria: An update. Neurology India 1999; 47: 85-91.
7. Kaul S. Cerebrovascular disease in children. Indian Pediatr 2000; 37: 159-171.
8. Ghosh D, Dhadwal D, Aggarwal A, Mitra S, Gard SK, Kumar R. Investigation of an out-break of Reye’s syndrome in northern region of India. Indian Pediatr 1999; 36: 1097-1106.
9. Larsen GY, Vernon DD, Dean JM. Evaluation of the Comatose Child. In: Rogers MC, ed. Textbook of Pediatric Intensive Care. 3rd edn. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1996. p. 735-745.
10. Mayer SA, Chong JJ. Critical Care manage-ment of increased intracranial pressure. J Intensive Care Med 2002; 17: 55-58.
11. Kirkham FJ. Non-traumatic coma in children. Arch Dis Child 2001; 85: 303-312.
12. Rosner MJ, Rosner SD, Johnson AH. Cerebral perfusion pressure: management protocol and clinical results. J Neurosurg1995; 83: 949-962.
13. Naraya Prabha PC, Nalini P, Serane VT. Role of Glasgow Coma scale in pediatric non-traumatic coma. Indian Pediatr 2003; 40: 620-625.
14. Shetty AK, Desselle BC, Craver SD. Fatal cerebral herniation after lumbar puncture in a child with a normal computed tomography scan. Pediatrics 1999; 103: 1284-1287.
15. Paczynski RP. Osmotherapy: basic concepts and controversies. Crit Care Clin 1997; 13: 163-185.
16. Ogden AT, Mayer AS. Hyperosmolar agents in neurosurgical practice. The evolving role of hypertonic saline. J Neurosurg 2005; 57: 207-215.
17. Qureshi AI, Suarez JI. Use of hypertonic saline in treatment of cerebral edema. Crit Care Med 1998; 26: 440-446.
18. Mazzola CA, Adelson PD. Critical care management of head trauma in children. Crit Care Med 2002; 30: S393-S401.
19. Guidelines for the acute medical management of severe traumatic brain injury in infants, children and adolescents. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2003; 4: S1-S75.
20. Kamat P, Vats A, Gross M, Checchia PA. Use of hypertonic saline for the treatment of altered mental status associated with diabetic ketoacidosis. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2003; 4: 239-242.
21. Curtis JR, Bohn D, Daneman D. Use of hypertonic saline in the treatment of cerebral edema in diabetic ketoacidosis. Pediatr Diabetes 2001; 2: 191-192.
22. Singhi PD, Bansal A, Ramesh S, Khandenwal N, Singhi SC. Predictive value of electro-encephalography and computed tomography in childhood non-traumatic coma. Indian J Pediatr 2005; 72: 475-479.
23. Riordan FAI, Cant AJ. When to do a lumbar puncture. Arch Dis Child 2002; 87: 235- 237.
24. Mellor D. The place of computed tomography and lumbar puncture in suspected meningitis. Arch Dis Child 1992; 67:1417-1419.
25. Singhi SC, Singhi PD, Srinivas B, Navakesari MP, Ganguli NK, Sialy R. et al. Fluid restriction does not improve the outcome of acute meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995; 14: 495-503.
26. Duke T, Mokela D, Frank D. Management of meningitis in children with oral fluid restriction or intravenous fluid at maintenance volumes: a randomized trial. Ann Trop Pediatr 2002; 22: 145-157.
27. Powell KR, Sugarman LI, Eskenazi AE, Woodin KA, Kays MA, Mc Cormide KL, et al. Normalization of plasma arginine levels when children with meningitis are given maintenance plus replacement fluid. J Pediatr 1990; 117: 515-522.
28. Maitland K, Levin M, English M. Severe P. falciparum malaria in Kenyan children: evidence for hypovolaemia. Q J Med 2003; 96: 427-434.
29. Sieber FE, Traystman RJ. Special issues: glucose and the brain. Crit Care Med 1992; 20: 104-114.
30. Feldman Z, Kanter NJ, Robertson CS, Contct CF, Hayes C, Sheinberg MA, et al. The effect of head elevation on intracranial pressure. J Neurosurg 1992; 76: 207-211.
31. Ashwal S, Stringer W, Tomasi L, Schneider S, et al.. Cerebral blood flow and carbon dioxide reactivity in children with bacterial meningitis. J Pediatr 1990; 117: 523-530.
32. Polderman KH. Application of therapeutic hypothermia in the ICU: Opportunities and pitfalls of a promising therapeutic modality. Part 1: Indications and evidence. Intensive Care Med. 2004; 30; 556-575.
33. Taylor A, Butt W, Rosenfeld J, Shann F. A randomized trial of very early decom-pressive craniectomy in children with traumatic brain injury and sustained intracranial hypertension. Childs Nerv Syst 2001; 17: 54-62.(Suchitra Ranjit)
Altered mental status is a common occurrence in children with acute critical illness. The causes of non-traumatic coma are diverse ranging from neurological to systemic causes. Early appropriate supportive care is essential to avoid preventable secondary insults and optimize the neurological outcome. Evaluation and stabilization of the patient’s airway, breathing and circulation (ABCs) must proceed simultaneously with assessments of the depth of coma and the presence of raised intracranial pressure (ICP). Any rapidly correctable cause of coma must be immediately corrected. Most patients with non-traumatic encephalopathies have raised ICP, although papilledema may be absent and the CT scan may be normal if ICP elevation occurs acutely. The most important early treatment for raised ICP is controlled intubation and ventilation followed by osmotherapy. Early control of seizures, including non-convulsive seizures is important. Urgent imaging is indicated in most cases particularly in the presence of afebrile coma, focal signs or papilledema. Following stabilization, isotonic fluids are administered, aiming for euvolemia and euglycaemia. Ventilation should aim for the lower end of eucapnia to avoid causing cerebral ischemia. Surgical options should be explored and, in refractory intracranial hypertension, barbiturates and mild hypothermia may have a role.
Key words: Coma, Cerebral perfusion pressure, Cerebral blood flow.
This article attempts to guide the pediatrician through a problem oriented, prioritized approach to a child presenting with coma in the Emergency Room and Intensive Care, stressing the importance of early stabilization of the vitals, including early controlled ventilation. The dangers of overzealous hyperventilation, early lumbar puncture as well as the basis for the current recommendations for fluid therapy in modern neuro-critical care are discussed. Many algorithms in standard western literature are based on continuous intracranial pressure (ICP) measurement, a monitoring modality that is not widely available in India. The following guidelines outline ten steps of empiric ICP management, an approach that may have limitations of significant over and under treatment with attendant complications. Guidelines for differentiating causes of coma are shown in Table I(1-9)
Important causes of coma in Indian children include bacterial, tuberculous and viral meningoencephalitis,
malaria; non-infectious causes including stroke, ingestions and Reye syndrome(2-8).
Management goals
The main goals of care include optimizing cerebral blood flow (CBF)/ cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) and minimizing factors that can aggravate neuronal injury or trigger intra-cranial pressure (ICP) elevation(9-12).
1. Assess the Airway, Breathing and Circulation (ABCs)
The airway should be stabilized and an assessment made for the need for intubation. Even if spontaneously breathing with normal gas exchange, many comatose children will benefit from intubation, especially if they have intracranial hypertension(9,11). Early intubation, ventilation and deep sedation are often overlooked as key interventions for ICP control(10).
A GCS below 8 has been the standard indication for intubation. Recent literature however states that intubation should be considered in patients with a GCS below 12(11). Other indications for intubation include deterioration in the level of conscious-ness, evidence of herniation and irregularities in respiration (Table II)(9-11).
The blood pressure should be kept at the higher range of normal (for age). This requires ensuring appropriate fluid and inotrope management(10,11).
2. Assess and Treat for Immediately Correctable Cause of Coma
Perform bedside capillary glucose test and correct if low, send samples to lab for routine hematological and biochemical testing.
3. Assessment of the Depth of Coma
The standard assessment tool is the Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) in older children and modified GCS in children <5 years old(1,2,13). The AVPU score A (Awake), V (Response to verbal commands), P (Response only to pain), U (unresponsive) is an alternate coma score(1).
4. Assessment and Treatment of Raised ICP
The focus of contempory ICP management has changed in recent years in two important aspects: firstly, increasing emphasis on CPP (cerebral perfusion pressure) management in addition to ICP control and secondly, the increasing recognition of the potential for overzealous hyperventilation to aggravate cerebral ischemia by reducing CBF(9-12).
CPP = Mean arterial pressure (MAP) – Intracranial pressure (ICP)
Cerebral ischemia may result when CPP is lowered, either from raised ICP or lowered MAP (hypotension). When the ICP is critically raised, herniation syndromes (uncal, central or medullary herniation) can occur, which, along with hypoxic-ischemic damage from reduced CPP, are the most important causes of death(10,11). Table III describes the signs of herniation(9,11).
Role of Mannitol
Mannitol is indicated acutely for patients in whom there is a strong clinical suspicion of raised ICP or imminent herniation(9-11). Mannitol has two distinct effects(9,10,15). The immediate effect is related to its rheologic properties (decreased blood viscosity) resulting in a transient increased CBF followed by a more sustained fall in CBF. The delayed osmotic effects occur after 15-30 minutes and last for 4-6 hours. Urinary fluid losses should be replaced with normal saline to avoid volume depletion(10).
Emerging Role of Hypertonic Saline (HTS) (16-21)
HTS acts like mannitol by establishing a constant osmolar gradient in order to draw fluid from the brain parenchyma but without the risks of dehydration and tubular damage as in the case of mannitol. In the hypotensive/hypoperfused patient, HTS may be the osmotherapy of choice for reducing ICP while maintaining MAP/CPP, although most literature is this context is in reference to adults(16,17).
However, beneficial effects of HTS with a low frequency of side-effects have been described in the setting of pediatric traumatic brain injury(18,19) and cerebral edema occurring during DKA treatment in children(20-21).
5. Anti-seizure Medications in Coma
Convulsions can cause massive increases in CBF , consequent increase in ICP, can lead to secondary brain damage and may precipitate or be precipitated by cerebral herniation(9-12). Apart from generalized tonic clonic seizures (GTCS), some comatose children may have non-convulsive seizures (NCS) manifesting with subtle signs such as eyelid twitching, eye deviation or nystagmus(11). A bedside EEG may be informative(22). If in doubt, empiric treatment of seizures may be justified and can result in improvement of consciousness(11).
6. Neuro-imaging
Urgent imaging is indicated in afebrile coma and the presence of focal signs or papilledema, as the diagnosis includes stroke, intra-cranial bleed, tumor or hydro-cephalus(11,22). However, any child who does not have a very obvious metabolic/ toxic cause for the coma generally requires to be imaged. A CT scan may provide information about the cause of altered mental status and the presence of intracranial hypertension(22), however a normal CT scan does not rule out raised ICP(11).
An MRI may be more specific for early changes of herpes simplex encephalitis (where CT may be normal), posterior fossa and white matter pathology(9,11) . A cranial ultrasound may miss subdural collections or even extensive infarcts and a CT or MRI is an essential investigation in a deeply comatose infant even when the anterior fontanelle is open(11).
7. Lumbar Puncture (LP) in a Comatose Child
The potential benefits of early LP include making an early diagnosis of CNS infection and identification of the pathogen and drug sensitivities(9,23). Contra-indications for LP include signs of cerebral herniation, low GCS, focal neurological signs, or cardiorespiratory compromise(9,11,23). In an unconscious child with potential raised ICP , the decision is controversial with some authors stating that the risk of herniation far outweighs the benefit of knowing the pathogen from an early LP(24).
8. Choice of Empiric Antimicrobials
If a CNS infection is suspected in a febrile child presenting in acute coma and seizures, empiric anti-microbial should include acyclovir in addition to a third generation cephalosporin until further confirmatory tests are available(11). The need for empiric anti-malarials should be carefully assessed(6,11).
9. Fluid Therapy
There is accumulating data that hypovolemia worsens outcome in children with meningitis(25-27), malaria(28) and severe head injury(18,19). Hypovolemia (fluid restriction, diuretics) can lower the CPP and lead to worse ICP due to auto-regulatory vasodilation(10) .What must be restricted are hypotonic fluids such as 1/5th normal saline in 5% dextrose (Isolyte P). The dextrose will be metabolized with a resultant hypotonic fluid that can exacerbate cerebral edema and ICP(10-12). Adult and pediatric literature stress the importance of avoiding both hyperglycemia as well as hypoglycemia since the former can also worsen neurological out-come(10,18,19,29) .
Enteral feeds should be started at the earliest(11,18) .
10. Management of persistent raised ICP in the ICU
If despite the above treatment, the patient continues to show evidence of raised ICP, further measures to tackle refractory raised ICP must be instituted. Specific surgically correctible lesions should be attended to.
While steroids should not be used for ICP related to infarcts, hemorrhage or trauma, the use of dexamethasone for vasogenic edema related to tumors, granulomas and abscesses can lead to dramatic reduction in lesion volume(10).
Head end elevation by 30o (provided patient not hypotensive)(30) and avoidance of neck kinking are important. Fever, agitation and seizures must be assiduously controlled as they can cause massive increases in CBF and CPP(9-12). If ventilated, the PaCO2 should be maintained in the low 30s in order to prevent cerebral ischemia(9-12,31). More extreme hypocapnia can be employed as a short- term temporizing measure for acute deterioration(10,11).
Barbiturate coma(9,18,19) and/or mild hypothermia(19,32) are used in some centers in order to reduce the cerebral metabolic rate for oxygen (CMRO2) and thus the cerebral blood flow, although most references pertain to adults(32). Hypotension during barbiturate use may require vasopressors to optimize the MAP/CPP(10,12) .
In ICP refractory to medical measures, surgical decompression has been shown to improve survival and functional out-come(33).
Acknowledgements
Some of the issues covered in the manuscript were discussed during the panel discussion on "Stabilization of a comatose child". This was a sub-specialty "Meet the expert" session of the Intensive chapter of IAP conducted during the 41st Pedicon held at Chennai on 10th Jan 2004 Moderators: Dr. Suchitra Ranjit, Dr Nirmal Choraria. Panelists: Krishan Chugh (Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, Delhi), N Janakiraman (Chicago, USA), Pravin Khilnani (Apollo Indraprastha, Delhi), Indumathy Santhanam (Institute of Child Health and Hospital for Children, Chennai), Sunit Singhi (Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandi-garh), Soonu Udani (PD Hinduja Hospital, Mumbai). The author also acknowledges with gratitude the expert comments and suggestions of Dr. Venkatakrishna Rajajee, Consultant in Neurocritical Care, Apollo Hospitals, Chennai.
References
1. Issacman DJ, Trainor JL, Rothrock SG. Central Nervous system. In: Gauche-Hill MG, Fuchs S, Yamamoto L, Editors. APLS: The Pediatric Emergency Medicine Course. 4th ed. Sudbury: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. 2004; p. 146-185.
2. Bansal A, Singhi SC, Singhi PD. Non-traumatic coma. Indian J Pediatr 2005; 72: 467-473.
3. Kabilan L, Rajendran R, Arunachalam N, Ramesh S, Srinivasan S, Samuel PP, et al. Japanese encephalitis in India: An overview. Indian J Pediatr 2004; 71: 609-615.
4. Rao BL, Basu A, Wairagkar NS, Gore MM, Arankalle VA, Thakare JP, et al. A large outbreak of acute encephalitis with high fatality rate in children in Andhra Pradesh, India, in 2003, associated with Chandipura virus. Lancet 2004; 364: 869-874.
5. Karande S, Gupta V, Kulkarni M. Prognostic clinical variables in childhood tuberculous meningitis: An experience from Mumbai, India. Neurology India 2005; 53: 191-196.
6. Garg RK, Karak B, Misra S. Neurological manifestations of malaria: An update. Neurology India 1999; 47: 85-91.
7. Kaul S. Cerebrovascular disease in children. Indian Pediatr 2000; 37: 159-171.
8. Ghosh D, Dhadwal D, Aggarwal A, Mitra S, Gard SK, Kumar R. Investigation of an out-break of Reye’s syndrome in northern region of India. Indian Pediatr 1999; 36: 1097-1106.
9. Larsen GY, Vernon DD, Dean JM. Evaluation of the Comatose Child. In: Rogers MC, ed. Textbook of Pediatric Intensive Care. 3rd edn. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1996. p. 735-745.
10. Mayer SA, Chong JJ. Critical Care manage-ment of increased intracranial pressure. J Intensive Care Med 2002; 17: 55-58.
11. Kirkham FJ. Non-traumatic coma in children. Arch Dis Child 2001; 85: 303-312.
12. Rosner MJ, Rosner SD, Johnson AH. Cerebral perfusion pressure: management protocol and clinical results. J Neurosurg1995; 83: 949-962.
13. Naraya Prabha PC, Nalini P, Serane VT. Role of Glasgow Coma scale in pediatric non-traumatic coma. Indian Pediatr 2003; 40: 620-625.
14. Shetty AK, Desselle BC, Craver SD. Fatal cerebral herniation after lumbar puncture in a child with a normal computed tomography scan. Pediatrics 1999; 103: 1284-1287.
15. Paczynski RP. Osmotherapy: basic concepts and controversies. Crit Care Clin 1997; 13: 163-185.
16. Ogden AT, Mayer AS. Hyperosmolar agents in neurosurgical practice. The evolving role of hypertonic saline. J Neurosurg 2005; 57: 207-215.
17. Qureshi AI, Suarez JI. Use of hypertonic saline in treatment of cerebral edema. Crit Care Med 1998; 26: 440-446.
18. Mazzola CA, Adelson PD. Critical care management of head trauma in children. Crit Care Med 2002; 30: S393-S401.
19. Guidelines for the acute medical management of severe traumatic brain injury in infants, children and adolescents. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2003; 4: S1-S75.
20. Kamat P, Vats A, Gross M, Checchia PA. Use of hypertonic saline for the treatment of altered mental status associated with diabetic ketoacidosis. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2003; 4: 239-242.
21. Curtis JR, Bohn D, Daneman D. Use of hypertonic saline in the treatment of cerebral edema in diabetic ketoacidosis. Pediatr Diabetes 2001; 2: 191-192.
22. Singhi PD, Bansal A, Ramesh S, Khandenwal N, Singhi SC. Predictive value of electro-encephalography and computed tomography in childhood non-traumatic coma. Indian J Pediatr 2005; 72: 475-479.
23. Riordan FAI, Cant AJ. When to do a lumbar puncture. Arch Dis Child 2002; 87: 235- 237.
24. Mellor D. The place of computed tomography and lumbar puncture in suspected meningitis. Arch Dis Child 1992; 67:1417-1419.
25. Singhi SC, Singhi PD, Srinivas B, Navakesari MP, Ganguli NK, Sialy R. et al. Fluid restriction does not improve the outcome of acute meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995; 14: 495-503.
26. Duke T, Mokela D, Frank D. Management of meningitis in children with oral fluid restriction or intravenous fluid at maintenance volumes: a randomized trial. Ann Trop Pediatr 2002; 22: 145-157.
27. Powell KR, Sugarman LI, Eskenazi AE, Woodin KA, Kays MA, Mc Cormide KL, et al. Normalization of plasma arginine levels when children with meningitis are given maintenance plus replacement fluid. J Pediatr 1990; 117: 515-522.
28. Maitland K, Levin M, English M. Severe P. falciparum malaria in Kenyan children: evidence for hypovolaemia. Q J Med 2003; 96: 427-434.
29. Sieber FE, Traystman RJ. Special issues: glucose and the brain. Crit Care Med 1992; 20: 104-114.
30. Feldman Z, Kanter NJ, Robertson CS, Contct CF, Hayes C, Sheinberg MA, et al. The effect of head elevation on intracranial pressure. J Neurosurg 1992; 76: 207-211.
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