Effect of self-esteem on substance-abuse, theft and prostitution
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《中华医药杂志》英文版
Effect of self-esteem on substance-abuse, theft and prostitution
Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman，Kerman Iran
[Abstract] This research has been carried out to identify and investigate the effect of self esteem on substance abuse theft and prostitution in Kerman. The research method was causal comparative or expost facto research and the statistical population was those who were imprisoned in the Kerman prison because of substance abuse, theft and prostitution, and the normal people. The necessary data were obtained by questionnaire. The analysis of the data was done by using chi-square and logistic regression test. The results of the research showed that the self esteem of the individuals affected their substance abuse, theft and prostitution.
[Key words] self esteem； substance abuse； theft； prostitution
INTRODUCTION
By self, we generally mean the conscious reflection of one’s own being or identity, as an object separate from other or from the environment. There are a variety of ways to think about the self. Two of the most widely used terms are self-concept and self-esteem. Self-concept is the cognitive or thinking aspect of self (related to one’s self-image) and generally refers to “ the totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence” (Purkey, 1988)[17].
Self-esteem is the affective of emotional aspect of self and generally refers to how we feel about or how we value ourselves (one’s self-worth). Self-concept can also refer to the general idea we have of ourselves and self-esteem can refer to particular measures about components of self-concept. Some authors even use the two terms interchangeably (Huitt, 2004)[11].
Franken (1994)[7] states that “there is a great deal of research which shows that the self-concept is, perhaps, the basis for all motivated behavior. It is the self-concept that gives rise to possible selves, and it is possible selves that create the motivation for behavior”.
This supports the idea that one’s paradigm or worldview and one’s relationship to that view provide the boundaries and circumstances within which we develop our vision about possibilities. This is one of the major issues facing children and youth today (Huitt, 2004)[11].
Franken (1994)[7] suggests that self-concept is related to self-esteem in that “people who have good self-esteem have a clearly differentiated self-concept… When people know themselves they can maximize outcomes because they know what they can and cannot do”.
It would seem, then, that one way to impact self-esteem is to obey the somewhat outworn cliché of “Know thyself.”
Self-esteem is how I feel about myself. It is my general judgment of myself. It is how much I like myself. (Guanipa, 1999)[8].
Most people’s feelings and thoughts about themselves fluctuate somewhat based on their daily experiences. The grade you get in an exam, how your friends treat you, ups and downs in a romantic relationship-all can have a temporary impact on your well being.
Your self-esteem, however, is something more fundamental than the normal “ups and downs” associated with situational chants. For people with good basicself-esteem, normal “ups and downs” may lead to
temporary fluctuations in how they feel about themselves, but only to limited extent. In contrast, for people with poor basic self-esteem, these “ups and downs” may make all the difference in the world (the counseling and Mental Health Center, 1999)[21].
Self-esteem is an extremely popular construct within psychology, and has been related to virtually every other psychological concept of domain, including personality (e.g. shyness), behavioral (e.g., task performance), cognitive (e.g.,attributional bias), and clinical concepts (e.g., anxiety and depression). While some researchers have been particularly concerned with understanding the nuances of the self-esteem construct, others have focused on the adaptive and self-protective functions of self-esteem (see Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991, for a review of conceptual and methodological issues).
Self-esteem has been related both to socioeconomic status and to various aspects of health and health-related behavior, as has a related construct, self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, a term associated with the work of Bandura, refers to an individual’s sense of competence of ability in general or in particular domains. Research on both constructs as they relate to SES and to health will be reviewed below (John & MacArthr, 2004)[14].
Coopersmith’s (1967) original work was designed to assess the origins of self-esteem in children. The results of this work in which children filled out the Self-Esteem Inventory and provided rations of their parents, staff members interviewed mothers, and mothers filled out questionnaires, indicated that “external indicators of prestige [of the parents] such as wealth, amount of education, and job title did not have as overwhelming and as significant an effect on self-esteem as is often assumed”(Pervin, 1993)[16].Parental attitudes and behaviors-acceptance of their children, clear and well-enforced demands, and respect for actions within well-defined limits-were the primary antecedents of children’s sense of self-worth (Pervin, 1993)[16].
Using both traditional and non-traditional measures of social class (including father’s unemployment status, neighborhood unemployment, family welfare status, and neighborhood evaluation), Wiltfang,et al.(1990)[23] found that father’s education had a small positive relationship with adolescents’ self-esteem and non-traditional measures had moderate to strong (neighborhood unemployment) associations with self-esteem (items from both Rosenberg and Coopersmith), all in the expected direction; they also found, however, that adolescent achievement variables (school grades, group leadership, report of many close friends) contributed significantly more to their self-esteem than did parental social class variables.
Abood,et al.(1992)[1] found a relationship between self-esteem and health values, and between self-esteem and general wellness behavior, but not between self-esteem and tobacco or alcohol use. The relationship between self-esteem and general wellness behavior remained significant even when health values were controlled for. Rivas Torres and colleagues (Rivas Torres,et al.)[18] examined the relationship among self-esteem, health values, and health behaviors among adolescents. They found a significant relationship between self-esteem and general health behavior for both younger and older adolescents, and that self-esteem accounted for a significant percent of the variance in mental health behavior, social health behavior, and total health behavior.
Baumeister,et al.(2003)[2] in a review of the self-esteem literature conclude that the benefits of high self-esteem fall into two categories, enhanced initiative and pleasant feelings. They conclude that self-esteem has little association with health behavior. High self-esteem does not appear to prevent children from drinking, taking drugs, smoking or engaging in early sex. In fact, they suggest that high self-esteem tends to foster experimentation possibly leading to early initiation of sexual activity or drinking but that in general the effects of self-esteem are negligible with the one exception being a reduction in chances of bulimia in females in the presence of high self-esteem.
The well-established relationship between self-esteem and psychological well-being (e.g. depression, social anxiety, loneliness, alienation; see Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991) may be an important factor in understanding the self-esteem/health relationship. Bernard,et al.(1996)[3] found high correlations among self-esteem, self-efficacy, ego strength, hardiness, optimism, and maladjustment, and all of these constructs were significantly related to health.
Twenge,et al.(2001)[22] in a cross-temporal meta-analytic review describe age and birth cohort differences in self-esteem among college students and school-age children. Self-esteem in college students increased substantially during 1968~1994 as measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale while children’s scores on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory showed a curvilinear pattern, decreasing from 1965 to 1979 and increasing from 1980 to 1993. They conclude that during this period of rising self-esteem few positive changes occurred in children and young adults’ behavior, noting most of the relevant behavioral indicators worsened, for example, increases in teen pregnancy, increases in adolescent crime rates, and increases in teen suicide rates and in anxiety and depression. (They note that their review does not include data after 1994, when many social indicators began to improve.)
Stamatakis,et al.(2003)[20] looked at the association of self-esteem and 10-year all-cause mortality in population-based sample of 2,682 male residents of Kuopio, Finland who were followed prospectively as part of the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease Rick Factor Study. They report that while lower self-esteem was found to be associated with many socioeconomic, behavioral, psychosocial and disease characteristics no association between self-esteem and all-cause mortality was observed after adjustment for other psychosocial characteristics, primarily hopelessness (John,et al.2004)[14].
Low self-esteem can have devastating consequences.
· It can create anxiety, stress, loneliness and increased likelihood for depression.
· It can cause problems with friendships and relationships.
· It can seriously impair academic and job performance.
· It can lead to underachievement and increased vulnerability to drug and alcohol abuse.
Worst of all, these negative consequences themselves reinforce the negative self-image and can take a person into a downward spiral of lever and lower and lower self-esteem and increasingly non-productive of even actively self-destructive behavior (The Counseling and Mental Health Center, 1999)[21].
According to Clark (1987) delinquents have a low self-esteem (Karbasi,et al.,1999)[12].
Schiffer，et al. (1976) showed that there was a relationship between low self-esteem and drinking wine. Hashish smokers as compared with others had a lower self-concept (Kerr,et al.2000)[13].
According to Mason,et al.delinquents consider themselves more lazy, more melancholic and more ignorant. They see themselves as undesirable persons, do not love themselves and do not know any value and respect for themselves (have a low self-respect) (Karbasi,et al.1999)[12].
Low self esteem and familial environment are causatively linked to substance use and abuse, and that the parent-child relationship provides the experiences from which self esteem is learned. Substance abuse is a frequently observed, maladaptive attempt to cope with the experience of pain associated with low self esteem (Gugliemo,et al.1985)[9].
adolescent substance abuse and measures of self-esteem are highly negatively correlated. Research of literature provides inferential conclusion that young child whose self-esteem is not sufficiently nourished will group into adolescent having greater propensity for substance abuse (Feltis,et al.1991)[6].
Data from 11 substance abuse treatment programs revealed that street youth in treatment for substance abuse had larger number of social and drug abuse problems than did not-street youth in treatment; were more likely to be unemployed, on welfare, and to have legal problems; and had more depression, had lower self-esteem, and used more alcohol and drugs (Smart,et al.1994)[19].
Sixth graders completed a survey investigating the relationship of school and home self-esteem to history of substance use, membership in alternative education programs, gender, and race. Both school and home self-esteem inversely related to tobacco, alcohol, and drug use. Students in nonmainstream programs had significantly lower home and school self-esteem (Emery,et al.1993)[5].
The purpose of this research is to identify the effect of self-esteem on the individuals tendency to substance abuse, theft and prostitution. To accomplish this goal, the following hypotheses were designed:
1. Individuals’ self-esteem influences on their tendency to substance abuse.
2. Individuals’ self-esteem influences on their tendency to theft
3. Individuals’ self-esteem influences on their tendency to prostitution
METHODOLOGY
The research method used was causal comparative or expost facto research method because the goal of the research was to discover the effect of self-esteem on the individuals’ tendency to substance dependency, theft and prostitution, and to reach this goal, the rate of self-esteem was compared in the normal group and the group with the record of substance abuse, theft and prostitution. The research sample consisted of 300 persons, 200 persons of whom were prisoners of Kerman prison with the record of substance abuse, theft and prostitution, and 100 persons of them were of the normal group. Considering the unreturned or uncompleted questionnaires, 283 questionnaires were analyzed. The necessary data regarding self-esteem were collected and obtained by the using self-esteem questionnaire which had 30 questions. The validity of this questionnaire was calculated 0/94 and its reliability was calculated 0/84. Data analysis was done by chi-square test.
The individuals’ self-esteem was calculated by calculating the mean of the 30 questions of the questionnaire of self-esteem (Table 1).
Table 1 Frequency Distribution of Self Esteem
The effect of self-esteem on substance-abuse, theft and prostitution was determined by chi-square test. Since the calculated P-value (0.000) was less than the significant (meaningful) level 5% (α=0.05), therefore the H0 is rejected in this level and then it is concluded that there is a relationship between self-esteem and substance abuse, theft and prostitution(or self-esteem has impaction substance abuse, theft and prostitution). Thus it can be said that the substance abuser and prostitutes have a lower self-esteem as compared with the normal (ordinary) individuals (Table 2).
Table 2 Chi-square Test for Calculating the Effect of Self-esteem on Substance Abuse, Theft and Prostitution
DISCUSSION
It was concluded in this research that self-esteem had impact on the individuals’ substance abuse, theft and prostitution, that’s the persons with the record of substance abuse, theft and prostitution had a lower self-esteem as compared with the normal persons.
Kelly (1975) (cited in Risoner) reported that there was a relationship between delinquency and low self-esteem. Hajen & bernz (1987) (cited in Risoner) concluded that the low self-esteem caused deviational behaviors.
According to Clark (1987) delinquents have a low self-esteem, and according to Owrang (1989) substance abusers have a low self-concept.
McMurran (2002)[15] (cited in Andrews) found that some of the criminals had weak and low self-esteem.
Guglielmo,et al.(1985)[9] reported that low self-esteem was linked to substance abuse. Feltis,et al.(1991)[6] found that adolescents substance abuse and measures of self-esteem were highly negatively correlated and that young child whose self-esteem in not sufficiently nourished will group into adolescents having greater propensity for substance abuse. Smart,et al. (1994)[19] reported that street youth in treatment for substance abuse had lower self-esteem. Emery,et al.(1993)[5] found that both school and home self-esteem inversely related to tobacco，alcohol, and drug use. Students in nonmainstream programs had significantly lower home and school self-esteem.The Counseling and Mental Health Center (1999)[21] stated that low self-esteem could lead to underachievement and increased vulnerability to drug and alcohol abuse.
REFERENCES
1. Abood DA,Conway TL. Health value and self-esteem as predictors of wellness behavior. Health values, 1992,16, 20-26.
2. Baumeister RF, Campbell JD, Kreuger JI,et al. Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2003,4(1): 1-44.
3. Bernard LC, Hutchison S, Lavin A,et al.Ego Strength, hardness, self-esteem, self-efficacy, optimism, and maladjustment: heath-related personality constructs and the “Big Five” model of personality Assessment, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc: US. 1996,3(2): 113-115.
4. Coppersmith S. The antecedents of self-esteem. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting psychologists press. (original work published 1967),1981.
5. Emery EM, McDermott RJ, Holcomb DR,et al. The Relationship between Youth Substance Use and Area specific self-Esteem. The Journal of School Health,1993,65( 5):224-225.
6. Feltis,L Miller. Correlative Aspects of Adolescent substance abuse and Self-Esteem. AWARENESS: The Journal of the Colorada. Associan for counseling and Development. Education Resources Information Center,1991.
7. Franden R. Human Motivation,3rd ed. Pacific Grove, CA: brooks/ Cole publishing Co, 1994,439,443.
8. Guanipa C. Self-Esteem. Dep. Of Counseling and School Psychology, San Diego University,1999.
9. Guglielmo, Robert. Development of Self Esteem as Function of Familial Reception. Journal of Drug Education. Education Resources Information Center,1985.
10. Hamachek D. Self-concept and school achievement: Interaction dynamics and a tool for assessing the Self-concept component. Journal of Counseling & Development, 1995,73(4)：419-425.
11. Huitt W. Self concept and Self-esteem. Educational psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta state university,2004.
12. Karbasi M,Vakilian M. Problems of adolescents and youngsters. Tehran: Payam,-e-Noor Publications,1999.
13. Kerr,Nilson,Lambet.Treatment of adolescents problems，3rd ed. Tehran: Astan-e-Qods-e-Razavi,2000.
14. Status and Health John, Mac Arthur. Self-Esteem. Research Network on Socio economies, 2004.
15. Mc Murran M. Motivation offenders to change. England: John Wiley & Sons ltd,2002.
16. Pervin LA. Personality: Theory and research. NY: John Wiley and Sons,1993,189.
17. Purkey W. An overview of Self-concept theory for counselors. ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Personnel Services. Ann Arbor,Mich. (An ERIC/CAPS Digest: ED304 630), 1988.
18. Rivas Torres RM, Fernadez P. Self-esteem and value of health a determinants of adolescent health behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health,1995,16: 60-63.
19. Smart, Reginald G, Ogborn Alan C. Street Youth is Substance Abuse Treatment characteristics and Treatment Compliance. Adolescence. Canada. Education Resources Information Center,1994.
20. Stamatkis KA, Lynch U, Everson SA.,et al. Self-esteem and mortality; prospective evidence from a population-based study. AEP,2003,14(1): 52-65.
21. The Counseling and Mental Health Center. Better Self-Esteem. The University of Texas at Austin,1999.22. Twenge JM.,Campbell WK. Age and birth Cohort differences in self-esteem: A Cross-temporal meta analysis. Personality and social psychology Review, 2001, 5(4): 321-344.
23. Wilfang GL, Scarbecz M. Social class and adolescents’ self-esteem: Another look. Social psychology Qrarterly, 1990,53:174-183.
(Editor Jaque)(Hamid Reza Alavi)
Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman，Kerman Iran
[Abstract] This research has been carried out to identify and investigate the effect of self esteem on substance abuse theft and prostitution in Kerman. The research method was causal comparative or expost facto research and the statistical population was those who were imprisoned in the Kerman prison because of substance abuse, theft and prostitution, and the normal people. The necessary data were obtained by questionnaire. The analysis of the data was done by using chi-square and logistic regression test. The results of the research showed that the self esteem of the individuals affected their substance abuse, theft and prostitution.
[Key words] self esteem； substance abuse； theft； prostitution
INTRODUCTION
By self, we generally mean the conscious reflection of one’s own being or identity, as an object separate from other or from the environment. There are a variety of ways to think about the self. Two of the most widely used terms are self-concept and self-esteem. Self-concept is the cognitive or thinking aspect of self (related to one’s self-image) and generally refers to “ the totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence” (Purkey, 1988)[17].
Self-esteem is the affective of emotional aspect of self and generally refers to how we feel about or how we value ourselves (one’s self-worth). Self-concept can also refer to the general idea we have of ourselves and self-esteem can refer to particular measures about components of self-concept. Some authors even use the two terms interchangeably (Huitt, 2004)[11].
Franken (1994)[7] states that “there is a great deal of research which shows that the self-concept is, perhaps, the basis for all motivated behavior. It is the self-concept that gives rise to possible selves, and it is possible selves that create the motivation for behavior”.
This supports the idea that one’s paradigm or worldview and one’s relationship to that view provide the boundaries and circumstances within which we develop our vision about possibilities. This is one of the major issues facing children and youth today (Huitt, 2004)[11].
Franken (1994)[7] suggests that self-concept is related to self-esteem in that “people who have good self-esteem have a clearly differentiated self-concept… When people know themselves they can maximize outcomes because they know what they can and cannot do”.
It would seem, then, that one way to impact self-esteem is to obey the somewhat outworn cliché of “Know thyself.”
Self-esteem is how I feel about myself. It is my general judgment of myself. It is how much I like myself. (Guanipa, 1999)[8].
Most people’s feelings and thoughts about themselves fluctuate somewhat based on their daily experiences. The grade you get in an exam, how your friends treat you, ups and downs in a romantic relationship-all can have a temporary impact on your well being.
Your self-esteem, however, is something more fundamental than the normal “ups and downs” associated with situational chants. For people with good basicself-esteem, normal “ups and downs” may lead to
temporary fluctuations in how they feel about themselves, but only to limited extent. In contrast, for people with poor basic self-esteem, these “ups and downs” may make all the difference in the world (the counseling and Mental Health Center, 1999)[21].
Self-esteem is an extremely popular construct within psychology, and has been related to virtually every other psychological concept of domain, including personality (e.g. shyness), behavioral (e.g., task performance), cognitive (e.g.,attributional bias), and clinical concepts (e.g., anxiety and depression). While some researchers have been particularly concerned with understanding the nuances of the self-esteem construct, others have focused on the adaptive and self-protective functions of self-esteem (see Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991, for a review of conceptual and methodological issues).
Self-esteem has been related both to socioeconomic status and to various aspects of health and health-related behavior, as has a related construct, self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, a term associated with the work of Bandura, refers to an individual’s sense of competence of ability in general or in particular domains. Research on both constructs as they relate to SES and to health will be reviewed below (John & MacArthr, 2004)[14].
Coopersmith’s (1967) original work was designed to assess the origins of self-esteem in children. The results of this work in which children filled out the Self-Esteem Inventory and provided rations of their parents, staff members interviewed mothers, and mothers filled out questionnaires, indicated that “external indicators of prestige [of the parents] such as wealth, amount of education, and job title did not have as overwhelming and as significant an effect on self-esteem as is often assumed”(Pervin, 1993)[16].Parental attitudes and behaviors-acceptance of their children, clear and well-enforced demands, and respect for actions within well-defined limits-were the primary antecedents of children’s sense of self-worth (Pervin, 1993)[16].
Using both traditional and non-traditional measures of social class (including father’s unemployment status, neighborhood unemployment, family welfare status, and neighborhood evaluation), Wiltfang,et al.(1990)[23] found that father’s education had a small positive relationship with adolescents’ self-esteem and non-traditional measures had moderate to strong (neighborhood unemployment) associations with self-esteem (items from both Rosenberg and Coopersmith), all in the expected direction; they also found, however, that adolescent achievement variables (school grades, group leadership, report of many close friends) contributed significantly more to their self-esteem than did parental social class variables.
Abood,et al.(1992)[1] found a relationship between self-esteem and health values, and between self-esteem and general wellness behavior, but not between self-esteem and tobacco or alcohol use. The relationship between self-esteem and general wellness behavior remained significant even when health values were controlled for. Rivas Torres and colleagues (Rivas Torres,et al.)[18] examined the relationship among self-esteem, health values, and health behaviors among adolescents. They found a significant relationship between self-esteem and general health behavior for both younger and older adolescents, and that self-esteem accounted for a significant percent of the variance in mental health behavior, social health behavior, and total health behavior.
Baumeister,et al.(2003)[2] in a review of the self-esteem literature conclude that the benefits of high self-esteem fall into two categories, enhanced initiative and pleasant feelings. They conclude that self-esteem has little association with health behavior. High self-esteem does not appear to prevent children from drinking, taking drugs, smoking or engaging in early sex. In fact, they suggest that high self-esteem tends to foster experimentation possibly leading to early initiation of sexual activity or drinking but that in general the effects of self-esteem are negligible with the one exception being a reduction in chances of bulimia in females in the presence of high self-esteem.
The well-established relationship between self-esteem and psychological well-being (e.g. depression, social anxiety, loneliness, alienation; see Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991) may be an important factor in understanding the self-esteem/health relationship. Bernard,et al.(1996)[3] found high correlations among self-esteem, self-efficacy, ego strength, hardiness, optimism, and maladjustment, and all of these constructs were significantly related to health.
Twenge,et al.(2001)[22] in a cross-temporal meta-analytic review describe age and birth cohort differences in self-esteem among college students and school-age children. Self-esteem in college students increased substantially during 1968~1994 as measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale while children’s scores on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory showed a curvilinear pattern, decreasing from 1965 to 1979 and increasing from 1980 to 1993. They conclude that during this period of rising self-esteem few positive changes occurred in children and young adults’ behavior, noting most of the relevant behavioral indicators worsened, for example, increases in teen pregnancy, increases in adolescent crime rates, and increases in teen suicide rates and in anxiety and depression. (They note that their review does not include data after 1994, when many social indicators began to improve.)
Stamatakis,et al.(2003)[20] looked at the association of self-esteem and 10-year all-cause mortality in population-based sample of 2,682 male residents of Kuopio, Finland who were followed prospectively as part of the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease Rick Factor Study. They report that while lower self-esteem was found to be associated with many socioeconomic, behavioral, psychosocial and disease characteristics no association between self-esteem and all-cause mortality was observed after adjustment for other psychosocial characteristics, primarily hopelessness (John,et al.2004)[14].
Low self-esteem can have devastating consequences.
· It can create anxiety, stress, loneliness and increased likelihood for depression.
· It can cause problems with friendships and relationships.
· It can seriously impair academic and job performance.
· It can lead to underachievement and increased vulnerability to drug and alcohol abuse.
Worst of all, these negative consequences themselves reinforce the negative self-image and can take a person into a downward spiral of lever and lower and lower self-esteem and increasingly non-productive of even actively self-destructive behavior (The Counseling and Mental Health Center, 1999)[21].
According to Clark (1987) delinquents have a low self-esteem (Karbasi,et al.,1999)[12].
Schiffer，et al. (1976) showed that there was a relationship between low self-esteem and drinking wine. Hashish smokers as compared with others had a lower self-concept (Kerr,et al.2000)[13].
According to Mason,et al.delinquents consider themselves more lazy, more melancholic and more ignorant. They see themselves as undesirable persons, do not love themselves and do not know any value and respect for themselves (have a low self-respect) (Karbasi,et al.1999)[12].
Low self esteem and familial environment are causatively linked to substance use and abuse, and that the parent-child relationship provides the experiences from which self esteem is learned. Substance abuse is a frequently observed, maladaptive attempt to cope with the experience of pain associated with low self esteem (Gugliemo,et al.1985)[9].
adolescent substance abuse and measures of self-esteem are highly negatively correlated. Research of literature provides inferential conclusion that young child whose self-esteem is not sufficiently nourished will group into adolescent having greater propensity for substance abuse (Feltis,et al.1991)[6].
Data from 11 substance abuse treatment programs revealed that street youth in treatment for substance abuse had larger number of social and drug abuse problems than did not-street youth in treatment; were more likely to be unemployed, on welfare, and to have legal problems; and had more depression, had lower self-esteem, and used more alcohol and drugs (Smart,et al.1994)[19].
Sixth graders completed a survey investigating the relationship of school and home self-esteem to history of substance use, membership in alternative education programs, gender, and race. Both school and home self-esteem inversely related to tobacco, alcohol, and drug use. Students in nonmainstream programs had significantly lower home and school self-esteem (Emery,et al.1993)[5].
The purpose of this research is to identify the effect of self-esteem on the individuals tendency to substance abuse, theft and prostitution. To accomplish this goal, the following hypotheses were designed:
1. Individuals’ self-esteem influences on their tendency to substance abuse.
2. Individuals’ self-esteem influences on their tendency to theft
3. Individuals’ self-esteem influences on their tendency to prostitution
METHODOLOGY
The research method used was causal comparative or expost facto research method because the goal of the research was to discover the effect of self-esteem on the individuals’ tendency to substance dependency, theft and prostitution, and to reach this goal, the rate of self-esteem was compared in the normal group and the group with the record of substance abuse, theft and prostitution. The research sample consisted of 300 persons, 200 persons of whom were prisoners of Kerman prison with the record of substance abuse, theft and prostitution, and 100 persons of them were of the normal group. Considering the unreturned or uncompleted questionnaires, 283 questionnaires were analyzed. The necessary data regarding self-esteem were collected and obtained by the using self-esteem questionnaire which had 30 questions. The validity of this questionnaire was calculated 0/94 and its reliability was calculated 0/84. Data analysis was done by chi-square test.
The individuals’ self-esteem was calculated by calculating the mean of the 30 questions of the questionnaire of self-esteem (Table 1).
Table 1 Frequency Distribution of Self Esteem
The effect of self-esteem on substance-abuse, theft and prostitution was determined by chi-square test. Since the calculated P-value (0.000) was less than the significant (meaningful) level 5% (α=0.05), therefore the H0 is rejected in this level and then it is concluded that there is a relationship between self-esteem and substance abuse, theft and prostitution(or self-esteem has impaction substance abuse, theft and prostitution). Thus it can be said that the substance abuser and prostitutes have a lower self-esteem as compared with the normal (ordinary) individuals (Table 2).
Table 2 Chi-square Test for Calculating the Effect of Self-esteem on Substance Abuse, Theft and Prostitution
DISCUSSION
It was concluded in this research that self-esteem had impact on the individuals’ substance abuse, theft and prostitution, that’s the persons with the record of substance abuse, theft and prostitution had a lower self-esteem as compared with the normal persons.
Kelly (1975) (cited in Risoner) reported that there was a relationship between delinquency and low self-esteem. Hajen & bernz (1987) (cited in Risoner) concluded that the low self-esteem caused deviational behaviors.
According to Clark (1987) delinquents have a low self-esteem, and according to Owrang (1989) substance abusers have a low self-concept.
McMurran (2002)[15] (cited in Andrews) found that some of the criminals had weak and low self-esteem.
Guglielmo,et al.(1985)[9] reported that low self-esteem was linked to substance abuse. Feltis,et al.(1991)[6] found that adolescents substance abuse and measures of self-esteem were highly negatively correlated and that young child whose self-esteem in not sufficiently nourished will group into adolescents having greater propensity for substance abuse. Smart,et al. (1994)[19] reported that street youth in treatment for substance abuse had lower self-esteem. Emery,et al.(1993)[5] found that both school and home self-esteem inversely related to tobacco，alcohol, and drug use. Students in nonmainstream programs had significantly lower home and school self-esteem.The Counseling and Mental Health Center (1999)[21] stated that low self-esteem could lead to underachievement and increased vulnerability to drug and alcohol abuse.
REFERENCES
1. Abood DA,Conway TL. Health value and self-esteem as predictors of wellness behavior. Health values, 1992,16, 20-26.
2. Baumeister RF, Campbell JD, Kreuger JI,et al. Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2003,4(1): 1-44.
3. Bernard LC, Hutchison S, Lavin A,et al.Ego Strength, hardness, self-esteem, self-efficacy, optimism, and maladjustment: heath-related personality constructs and the “Big Five” model of personality Assessment, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc: US. 1996,3(2): 113-115.
4. Coppersmith S. The antecedents of self-esteem. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting psychologists press. (original work published 1967),1981.
5. Emery EM, McDermott RJ, Holcomb DR,et al. The Relationship between Youth Substance Use and Area specific self-Esteem. The Journal of School Health,1993,65( 5):224-225.
6. Feltis,L Miller. Correlative Aspects of Adolescent substance abuse and Self-Esteem. AWARENESS: The Journal of the Colorada. Associan for counseling and Development. Education Resources Information Center,1991.
7. Franden R. Human Motivation,3rd ed. Pacific Grove, CA: brooks/ Cole publishing Co, 1994,439,443.
8. Guanipa C. Self-Esteem. Dep. Of Counseling and School Psychology, San Diego University,1999.
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(Editor Jaque)(Hamid Reza Alavi)